语言学概论

　　《语言学概论》是为中学英语教师进修本科课程和英语专业本科生编写的教材，旨在帮助读者掌握现代语言学的基本概念、基本理论、基本方法，引发对语言本质、语言学习过程和语言教学原理的思考。

　　21世纪，世界经济一体化的趋势必然带来国际交流与合作的新局面。英语作为国际交流的通用语言越来越受到社会各界的重视。英语（作为外语）教学在我国学历教育、职业教育、继续教育中占有前所未有的地位。从2001年起，县级以上城市的小学普遍开始开设英语课程。大规模、高效率的英语教学是以高水平、专业化的英语教师培养、培训为基础的。听、说、读、写、译技能是从事英语教学必须具备的，但不是英语教师职业化培训的全部。外语教学是由政府决策、专家策划、教师操作、社会评价构成的系统工程。教师直接面临的问题是怎么教。然而，教无定法，教师需要根据教育目标、教学对象、教学内容、教学设备等诸多因素创造性地设计课程步骤。教师不仅要考虑怎么教，还必须考虑为什么教，教什么。语言教师应该知道语言是什么，语言是由什么构成的，是如何发挥作用的，是如何习得的。语言学研究成果对语言教师颇有启发。外语教学法是语言理论与教学实践结合的产物。有语言理论知识外语教师才能深入理解教学大纲和课程标准，才能驾驭教材，才能创造性地组织课堂教学，提高教学效果。

目录

CHAPTER 1 Language and Linguistics: an Overview
　1.1 What is language？ 1
　1.2 Features of human language 2
　1.3 Functions of language 5
　1.4 Types of language 6
　　1.4.1 Natural languages and artificial languages
　　1.4.2 Genetic classification of languages
　　1.4.3 The typological classification of languages
　1.5 The myth of language: language origin 8
　1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language 9
　　1.6.1 Linguistics as a science
　　1.6.2 Branches of linguistics
　　1.6.3 Features of modern linguistics
　TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES / QUESTIONS 13
　MINI-PROJECTS 13
　　
CHAPTER 2 Phonetics: the Study of Speech Sounds
　2.1 The study of speech sounds 14
　2.2 The sound-producing mechanism 14
　2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds 16
　　2.3.1 Unit of representation
　　2.3.2 Phonetic symbols
　2.4 Description of English consonants 17
　2.5 Description of English vowels 19
　2.6 Phonetic features and natural classes 21
　TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES / QUESTIONS 22
　MINI-PROJECTS 23
　　
CHAPTER 3 Phonology: the Study of Sound Systems and Patterns 24
　3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns 24
　3.2 Phonemes and allophones 24
　3.3 Discovering phonemes 25
　　3.3.1 Contrastive distribution
　　3.3.2 Complementary distribution
　　3.3.3 Free variation
　　3.3.4 The discovery procedure
　3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features 27
　3.5 Phonological rules 28
　3.6 Syllable structure 29
　3.7 Sequence of phonemes 30
　3.8 Features above segments 31
　　3.8.1 Stress
　　3.8.2 Intonation
　　3.8.3 Tone
　　3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in English
　TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES / QUESTIONS 33
　MINI-PROJECTS 35
　　
CHAPTER 4 Morphology: the Study of Word Structure 36
　4.1 Words and word structure 36
　4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language 36
　4.3 Classification of morphemes 37
　　4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes
　　4.3.2 Inflectional and dedvational morphemes
　4.4 Formation of English words 38
　　4.4.1 Derivation
　　4.4.2 Compounding
　　4.4.3 Other types of English word formation
　TUTORIALACTIVITIES / QUESTIONS 43
　MINI-PROJECTS 44
　　
CHAPTER 5 Syntax: the Analysisis Sentence Structure 45
　5.1 Grammaticality 45
　5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure 46
　5.3 Different approaches to syntax 47
　5.4 Transformational-generative grammar（TG） 49
　　5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar
　　5.4.2 Syntactic categories
　　5.4.3 Phrase structure rules
　　5.4.4 Tree diagrams
　　5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language
　　5.4.6 Sub-categorization of the lexicon
　　5.4.7 Transformational rules
　5.5 Systemic-functional grammar 60
　　5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice
　　5.5.2 The three metafunctions
　　5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experience
　　5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction
　　5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message
　TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES / QUESTIONS 69
　MINI-PROJECTS 72
　　
CHAPTER 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning 73
　6.1 The study of meaning 73
　6.2 Reference and sense 74
　　6.2.1 Reference
　　6.2.2 Sense
　6.3 Classification of iexical meanings 75
　　6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning
　　6.3.2 Types of associative meaning
　6.4 Lexical sense relations 77
　　6.4.1 Synonymy
　　6.4.2 Antonymy
　　6.4.3 Homonymy
　　6.4.4 Polysemy
　　6.4.5 Hyponymy
　6.5 Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis 80
　6.6 Words and concepts 81
　　6.6.1 Categorization
　　6.6.2 Prototypes
　　6.6.3 Hierarchies
　6.7 Semantic relations of sentences 83
　6.8 Metaphors 85
　　6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device
　　6.8.2 The components of metaphors
　　6.8.3 Features of metaphors
　TUTORIALACTIVITIES / QUESTIONS 89
　MINI-PROJECTS 92
　　
CHAPTER 7 Pragmatlcs: the Analysis of Meaning in Context 93
　7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning 93
　7.2 Deixis and reference 94
　7.3 Speech acts 96
　7.4 Cooperation and implicature 98
　7.5 The politeness principle 99
　7.6 The principle of relevance 101
　7.7 Conversational structure 103
　TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES / QU ESTIONS 106
　MINI-PROJECTS 107
　　
CHAPTER 8 Language in Social Contexts 108
　8.1 Sociolinguistic study of language 108
　8.2 Varieties of a language 108
　8.3 Grades of formality 111
　8.4 Languages in contact 112
　8.5 Taboos and euphemisms 113
　8.6 Language and culture 114
　8.7 Communicative competence 116
　TUTORIALACTIVITIES/QUESTIONS 117
　MINI-PROJECTS 117
　　
CHAPTER 9 Second LanguageAcquisltion 118
　9.1 What is second language acquisition？ 118
　9.2 Factors affecting SLA 119
　9.3 Analyzing learners' language 122
　9.4 Explaining second language acquisition 124
　TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES /QUESTIONS 127
　MINI-PROJECTS 128
　　
CHAPTER 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 129
　10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system 129
　10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications 131
　10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design 132
　10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice 133
　10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers 136
　TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES / QUESTIONS 137
　MINI-PROJECTS 139
　
Appendix I Families I Groups of Languages 140
Appendix II The Indo-European Language Family 142
Bibliography 144
Suggested Solutions to Tutorial Questions 148
An English-Chinese Glossary 156